Part 9 (1/2)
He built it of bricks of Sumer, and the timbers which he set in place were as strong as the dragon of the deep.
While he was engaged on the building Gudea took counsel of the G.o.d Enki, and he built a fountain for the G.o.ds, where they might drink. With the great stones which he had brought and fas.h.i.+oned he built a reservoir and a basin for the temple. And seven of the great stones he set up as stelae, and he gave them favourable names. The text then recounts the various parts and shrines of the temple, and it describes their splendours in similes drawn from the heavens and the earth and the abyss, or deep, beneath the earth. The temple itself is described as, being like the crescent of the new moon, or like the sun in the midst of the stars, or like a mountain of lapis lazuli, or like a mountain of s.h.i.+ning marble. Parts of it are said to have been terrible and strong as a savage bull, or a lion, or the antelope of the abyss, or the monster Lakhamu who dwells in the abyss, or the sacred leopard that inspires terror. One of the doors of the temple was guarded by a figure of the hero who slew the monster with six heads, and at another door was a good dragon, and at another a lion; opposite the city were set figures of the seven heroes, and facing the rising sun was fixed the emblem of the Sun-G.o.d. Figures of other heroes and favourable monsters were set up as guardians of other portions of the temple. The fastenings of the main entrance were decorated with dragons shooting out their tongues, and the bolt of the great door was fas.h.i.+oned like a raging hound.
After this description of the construction and adornment of the temple the text goes on to narrate how Gudea arranged for its material endowment. He stalled oxen and sheep, for sacrifice and feasting, in the outhouses and pens within the temple precincts, and he heaped up grain in its granaries. Its storehouses he filled with spices so that they were like the Tigris when its waters are in flood, and in its treasure-chambers he piled up precious stones, and silver, and lead in abundance. Within the temple precincts he planted a sacred garden which was like a mountain covered with vines; and on the terrace he built a great reservoir, or tank, lined with lead, in addition to the great stone reservoir within the temple itself. He constructed a special dwelling-place for the sacred doves, and among the flowers of the temple garden and under the shade of the great trees the birds of heaven flew about unmolested.
The first of the two great cylinders of Gudea ends at this point in the description of the temple, and it is evident that its text was composed while the work of building was still in progress. Moreover, the writing of the cylinder was finished before the actual work of building the temple was completed, for the last column of the text concludes with a prayer to Ningirsu to make it glorious during the progress of the work, the prayer ending with the words, ”O Ningirsu, glorify it! Glorify the temple of Ningirsu during its construction!” The text of the second of the two great cylinders is shorter than that of the first, consisting of twenty-four instead of thirty columns of writing, and it was composed and written after the temple was completed. Like the first of the cylinders, it concludes with a prayer to Ningirsu on behalf of the temple, ending with the similar refrain, ”O Ningirsu, glorify it!
Glorify the temple of Ningirsu after its construction!” The first cylinder, as we have seen, records how it came about that Gudea decided to rebuild the temple E-ninn in honour of Ningirsu. It describes how, when the land was suffering from drought and famine, Gudea had a dream, how Nina interpreted the dream to mean that he must rebuild the temple, and how Ningirsu himself promised that this act of piety would restore abundance and prosperity to the land. Its text ends with the long description of the sumptuous manner in which the patesi carried out the work, the most striking points of which we have just summarized. The narrative of the second cylinder begins at the moment when the building of the temple was finished, and when all was ready for the great G.o.d Nin-girsu to be installed therein, and its text is taken up with a description of the ceremonies and rites with which this solemn function was carried out. It presents us with a picture, drawn from life, of the wors.h.i.+p and cult of the ancient Sumerians in actual operation. In view of its importance from the point of view of the study and comparison of the Sumerian and Babylonian religious systems, its contents also may be summarized. We will afterwards discuss briefly the information furnished by both the cylinders on the Sumerian origin of many of the religious beliefs and practices which were current among the later Semitic inhabitants of Babylonia and a.s.syria.
When Gudea had finished building the new temple of E-ninn, and had completed the decoration and adornment of its shrines, and had planted its gardens and stocked its treasure-chambers and storehouses, he applied himself to the preliminary ceremonies and religious preparations which necessarily preceded the actual function of transferring the statue of the G.o.d Ningirsu from his old temple to his new one. Gudea's first act was to install the Anunnaki, or Spirits of the Earth, in the new temple, and when he had done this, and had supplied additional sheep for their sacrifices and food in abundance for their offerings, he prayed to them to give him their a.s.sistance and to p.r.o.nounce a prayer at his side when he should lead Ningirsu into his new dwelling-place.
The text then describes how Gudea went to the old temple of Ningirsu, accompanied by his protecting spirits who walked before him and behind him. Into the old temple he carried sumptuous offerings, and when he had set them before the G.o.d, he addressed him in prayer and said: ”O my King, Ningirsu! O Lord, who curbest the raging waters! O Lord, whose word surpa.s.seth all others! O Son of Enlil, O warrior, what commands shall I faithfully carry out? O Ningirsu, I have built thy temple, and with joy would I lead thee therein, and my G.o.ddess Bau would install at thy side.” We are told that the G.o.d accepted Gudea's prayer, and thereby he gave his consent to be removed from the old temple of E-ninn to his new one which bore the same name.
But the ceremony of the G.o.d's removal was not carried out at once, for the due time had not arrived. The year ended, and the new year came, and then ”the month of the temple” began. The third day of the month was that appointed for the installation of Ningirsu. Gudea meanwhile had sprinkled the ground with oil, and set out offerings of honey and b.u.t.ter and wine, and grain mixed with milk, and dates, and food untouched by fire, to serve as food for the G.o.ds; and the G.o.ds themselves had a.s.sisted in the preparations for the reception of Ningirsu. The G.o.d Asaru made ready the temple itself, and Ninmada performed the ceremony of purification. The G.o.d Enki issued oracles, and the G.o.d Nindub, the supreme priest of Eridu, brought incense. Nina performed chants within the temple, and brought black sheep and holy cows to its folds and stalls. This record of the help given by the other G.o.ds we may interpret as meaning that the priests attached to the other great Sumerian temples took part in the preparation of the new temple, and added their offerings to the temple stores. To many of the G.o.ds, also, special shrines within the temple were a.s.signed.
When the purification of E-ninn was completed and the way between the old temple and the new made ready, all the inhabitants of the city prostrated themselves on the ground. ”The city,” says Gudea, ”was like the mother of a sick man who prepareth a potion for him, or like the cattle of the plain which lie down together, or like the fierce lion, the master of the plain, when he coucheth.” During the day and the night before the ceremony of removal, prayers and supplications were uttered, and at the first light of dawn on the appointed day the G.o.d Ningirsu went into his new temple ”like a whirlwind,” the G.o.ddess Bau entering at his side ”like the sun rising over s.h.i.+rpurla.” She entered beside his couch, like a faithful wife, whose cares are for her own household, and she dwelt beside his ear and bestowed abundance upon s.h.i.+rpurla.
As the day began to brighten and the sun rose, Gudea set out as offerings in the temple a fat ox and a fat sheep, and he brought a vase of lead and filled it with wine, which he poured out as a libation, and he performed incantations. Then, having duly established Ningirsu and Bau in the chief shrine, he turned his attention to the lesser G.o.ds and installed them in their appointed places in the temple, where they would be always ready to a.s.sist Ningirsu in the temple ceremonies and in the issue of his decrees for the welfare of the city and its inhabitants.
Thus he established the G.o.d Galalim, the son of Ningirsu, in a chosen spot in the great court in front of the temple, where, under the orders of his father, he should direct the just and curb the evil-doer; he would also by his presence strengthen and preserve the temple, while his special duty was to guard the throne of destiny and, on behalf of Ningirsu, to place the sceptre in the hands of the reigning patesi.
Near to Ningirsu and under his orders Gudea also established the G.o.d Duns.h.a.ga, whose function it was to sanctify the temple and to look after its libations and offerings, and to see to the due performance of the ceremonies of ablution. This G.o.d would offer water to Ningirsu with a pure hand, he would pour out libations of wine and strong drink, and would tend the oxen, sheep, kids, and other offerings which were brought to the temple night and day. To the G.o.d Lugalkurdub, who was also installed in the temple, was a.s.signed the privilege of holding in his hand the mace with the seven heads, and it was his duty to open the door of the Gate of Combat. He guarded the sacred weapons of Ningirsu and destroyed the countries of his enemies. He was Ningirsu's chief leader in battle, and another G.o.d with lesser powers was a.s.sociated with him as his second leader.
Ningirsu's counsellor was the G.o.d Lugalsisa, and he also had his appointed place in E-ninn. It was his duty to receive the prayers of s.h.i.+rpurla and render them propitious; he superintended and blessed Ningirsu's journey when he visited Eridu or returned from that city, and he made special intercessions for the life of Gudea. The minister of Ningirsu's harim was the G.o.d Shakanshabar, and he was installed near to Nin-girsu that he might issue his commands, both great and small. The keeper of the harim was the G.o.d Urizu, and it was his duty to purify the water and sanctify the grain, and he tended Ningirsu's sleeping-chamber and saw that all was arranged therein as was fitting. The driver of Ningirsu's chariot was the G.o.d Ensignun; it was his duty to keep the sacred chariot as bright as the stars of heaven, and morning and evening to tend and feed Ningirsu's sacred a.s.s, called Ug-kash, and the a.s.s of Eridu. The shepherd of Ningirsu's kids was the G.o.d Enlulim, and he tended the sacred she-goat who suckled the kids, and he guarded her so that the serpent should not steal her milk. This G.o.d also looked after the oil and the strong drink of E-ninn, and saw that its store increased.
Ningirsu's beloved musician was the G.o.d Ushum-gabkalama, and he was installed in E-ninn that he might take his flute and fill the temple court with joy. It was his privilege to play to Ningirsu as he listened in his harim, and to render the life of the G.o.d pleasant in E-ninn.
Ningirsu's singer was the G.o.d Lugaligi-khusham, and he had his appointed place in E-ninn, for he could appease the heart and soften anger; he could stop the tears which flowed from weeping eyes, and could lessen sorrow in the sighing heart. Gudea also installed in E-ninn the seven twin-daughters of the G.o.ddess Bau, all virgins, whom Ningirsu had begotten. Their names were Zarzaru, Impae, Urenuntaea, Khegir-nuna, Khes.h.a.ga, Gurmu, and Zarmu. Gudea installed them near their father that they might offer favourable prayers.
The cultivator of the district of Gu-edin was the G.o.d Gishbare, and he was installed in the temple that he might cause the great fields to be fertile, and might make the wheat glisten in Gu-edin, the plain a.s.signed to Ningirsu for his revenues. It was this G.o.d's duty also to tend the machines for irrigation, and to raise the water into the ca.n.a.ls and ditches of s.h.i.+rpurla, and thus to keep the city's granaries well filled.
The G.o.d Kal was the guardian of the fis.h.i.+ng in Gu-edin, and his chief duty was to place fish in the sacred pools. The steward of Gu-edin was the G.o.d Dimgalabzu, whose duty it was to keep the plain in good order, so that the birds might abound there and the beasts might raise their young in peace; he also guarded the special privilege, which the plain enjoyed, of freedom from any tax levied upon the increase of the cattle pastured there. Last of all Gudea installed in E-ninn the G.o.d Lugalenurua-zagakam, who looked after the construction of houses in the city and the building of fortresses upon the city wall; in the temple it was his privilege to raise on high a battle-axe made of cedar.
All these lesser deities, having close relations to the G.o.d Ningirsu, were installed by Gudea in his temple in close proximity to him, that they might be always ready to perform their special functions. But the greater deities also had their share in the inauguration of the temple, and of these Gudea specially mentions Ana, Enlil, Ninkharsag, Enki, and Enzu, who all a.s.sisted in rendering the temple's lot propitious. For at least three of the greater G.o.ds (Ana, Enlil, and the G.o.ddess Nin-makh) Gudea erected shrines near one another and probably within the temple's precincts, and, as the pa.s.sage which records this fact is broken, it is possible that the missing portion of the text recorded the building of shrines to other deities. In any case, it is clear that the composer of the text represents all the great G.o.ds as beholding the erection and inauguration of Ningirsu's new temple with favour.
After the account of the installation of Ningirsu, and his spouse Bau, and his attendant deities, the text records the sumptuous offerings which Gudea placed within Ningirsu's shrine. These included another chariot drawn by an a.s.s, a seven-headed battle-axe, a sword with nine emblems, a bow with terrible arrows and a quiver decorated with wild beasts and dragons shooting out their tongues, and a bed which was set within the G.o.d's sleeping-chamber. On the couch in the shrine the G.o.ddess Bau reclined beside her lord Ningirsu, and ate of the great victims which were sacrificed in their honour.
When the ceremony of installation had been successfully performed, Gudea rested, and for seven days he feasted with his people. During this time the maid was the equal of her mistress, and master and servant consorted together as friends. The powerful and the humble man lay down side by side, and in place of evil speech only propitious words were heard. The rich man did not wrong the orphan and the strong man did not oppress the widow. The laws of Nina and Ningirsu were observed, justice was bright in the sunlight, and the Sun-G.o.d trampled iniquity under foot. The building of the temple also restored material prosperity to the land, for the ca.n.a.ls became full of water and fish swarmed in the pools, the granaries were filled with grain and the flocks and herds brought forth their increase. The city of s.h.i.+rpurla was satiated with abundance.
Such is a summary of the account which Gudea has left us of his rebuilding of the temple E-ninn, of the reasons which led him to undertake the work, and of the results which followed its completion. It has often been said that the inscriptions of the ancient Sumerians are without much intrinsic value, that they mainly consist of dull votive formulae, and that for general interest the best of them cannot be compared with the later inscriptions of the Semitic inhabitants of Mesopotamia. This reproach, for which until recently there was considerable justification, has been finally removed by the working out of the texts upon Gudea's cylinders. For picturesque narrative, for wealth of detail, and for striking similes, it would be hard to find their superior in Babylonian and a.s.syrian literature. They are, in fact, very remarkable compositions, and in themselves justify the claim that the Sumerians were possessed of a literature in the proper sense of the term.
But that is not their only value, for they give a vivid picture of ancient Sumerian life and of the ideals and aims which actuated the people and their rulers. The Sumerians were essentially an unmilitary race. That they could maintain a stubborn fight for their territory is proved by the prolonged struggle maintained by s.h.i.+rpurla against her rival Gishkhu, but neither ruler nor people was inflamed by love of conquest for its own sake. They were settled in a rich and fertile country, which supplied their own wants in abundance, and they were content to lead a peaceful life therein, engaged in agricultural and industrial pursuits, and devoted wholly to the wors.h.i.+p of their G.o.ds.
Gudea's inscriptions enable us to realize with what fervour they carried out the rebuilding of a temple, and how the whole resources of the nation were devoted to the successful completion of the work. It is true that the rebuilding of E-ninn was undertaken in a critical period when the land was threatened with famine, and the peculiar magnificence with which the work was carried out may be partly explained as due to the belief that such devotion would ensure a return of material prosperity.
But the existence of such a belief is in itself an index to the people's character, and we may take it that the record faithfully represents the relations of the Sumerians to their G.o.ds, and the important place which wors.h.i.+p and ritual occupied in the national life.
Moreover, the inscriptions of Gudea furnish much valuable information with regard to the details of Sumerian wors.h.i.+p and the elaborate organization of the temples. From them we can reconstruct a picture of one of these immense buildings, with its numerous shrines and courts, surrounded by sacred gardens and raising its ziggurat, or temple tower, high above the surrounding city. Within its dark chambers were the mysterious figures of the G.o.ds, and what little light could enter would have been reflected in the tanks of sacred water sunk to the level of the pavement. The air within the shrines must have been heavy with the smell of incense and of aromatic woods, while the deep silence would have been broken only by the chanting of the priests and the feet of those that bore offerings. Outside in the sunlight cedars and other rare trees cast a pleasant shade, and birds flew about among the flowers and bushes in the outer courts and on the garden terraces. The area covered by the temple buildings must have been enormous, for they included the dwellings of the priests, stables and pens for the cattle, sheep, and kids employed for sacrifice, and treasure-chambers and storehouses and granaries for the produce from the temple lands.
We also get much information with regard to the nature of the offerings and the character of the ceremonies which were performed. We may mention as of peculiar interest Gudea's symbolical rite which preceded the making of the sun-dried bricks, and the ceremony of the installation of Ningirsu in the presence of the prostrate city. The texts also throw an interesting light on the truly Oriental manner in which, when approaching one deity for help, the cooperation and a.s.sistance of other deities were first secured. Thus Gudea solicited the intercession of Ningirsu and Gatumdug before applying to the G.o.ddess Nina to interpret his dream. The extremely human character of the G.o.ds themselves is also well ill.u.s.trated. Thus we gather from the texts that Ningirsu's temple was arranged like the palace of a Sumerian ruler and that he was surrounded by G.o.ds who took the place of the attendants and ministers of his human counterpart. His son was installed in a place of honour and shared with him the responsibility of government. Another G.o.d was his personal attendant and cupbearer, who offered him fair water and looked after the ablutions. Two more were his generals, who secured his country against the attacks of foes. Another was his counsellor, who received and presented pet.i.tions from his subjects and superintended his journeys. Another was the head of his harim, a position of great trust and responsibility, while a keeper of the harim looked after the practical details. Another G.o.d was the driver of his chariot, and it is interesting to note that the chariot was drawn by an a.s.s, for horses were not introduced into Western Asia until a much later period. Other G.o.ds performed the functions of head shepherd, chief musician, chief singer, head cultivator and inspector of irrigation, inspector of the fis.h.i.+ng, land steward, and architect. His household also included his wife and his seven virgin daughters. In addition to the account of the various functions performed by these lesser deities, the texts also furnish valuable facts with regard to the characters and attributes of the greater G.o.ds and G.o.ddesses, such as the attributes of Ningirsu himself, and the character of Nina as the G.o.ddess who divined and interpreted the secrets of the G.o.ds.
But perhaps the most interesting conclusions to be drawn from the texts relate to the influence exerted by the ancient Sumerians upon Semitic beliefs and practices. It has, of course, long been recognized that the later Semitic inhabitants of Babylonia and a.s.syria drew most of their culture from the Sumerians, whom they displaced and absorbed. Their system of writing, the general structure of their temples, the ritual of their wors.h.i.+p, the majority of their religious compositions, and many of their G.o.ds themselves are to be traced to a Sumerian origin, and much of the information obtained from the cylinders of Gudea merely confirms or ill.u.s.trates the conclusions already deduced from other sources. As instances we may mention the belief in spirits, which is ill.u.s.trated by the importance attached to the placating of the Anunnaki, or Spirits of the Earth, to whom a special place and special offerings were a.s.signed in E-ninn. The Sumerian origin of ceremonies of purification is confirmed by Gudea's purification of the city before beginning the building of the temple, and again before the transference of the G.o.d from his old temple to the new one. The consultation of omens, which was so marked a feature of Babylonian and a.s.syrian life, is seen in actual operation under the Sumerians; for, even after Gudea had received direct instructions from Ningirsu to begin building his temple, he did not proceed to carry them out until he had consulted the omens and found that they were favourable. Moreover, the references to mythological beings, such as the seven heroes, the dragon of the deep, and the G.o.d who slew the dragon, confirm the opinion that the creation legends and other mythological compositions of the Babylonians were derived by them from Sumerian sources. But there are two incidents in the narrative which are on a rather different plane and are more startling in their novelty. One is the story of Gudea's dream, and the other the sign which he sought from his G.o.d. The former is distinctly apocalyptic in character, and both may be parallelled in what is regarded as purely Semitic literature. That such conceptions existed among the Sumerians is a most interesting fact, and although the theory of independent origin is possible, their existence may well have influenced later Semitic beliefs.
CHAPTER V--ELAM AND BABYLON, THE COUNTRY OF THE SEA AND THE Ka.s.sITES