Part 29 (1/2)
As he plunged into the river, he exclaimed, ”The die is cast.”
THE CIVIL WAR OF CaeSAR AND POMPEY (49-48 B.C.).--The bold movement of Caesar produced great consternation at Rome. Realizing the danger of delay, Caesar, without waiting for the Gallic legions to join him, marched southward. One city after another threw open its gates to him; legion after legion went over to his standard. Pompey and the Senate hastened from Rome to Brundisium, and thence, with about twenty-five thousand men, fled across the Adriatic into Greece. Within sixty days Caesar made himself undisputed master of all Italy.
Pompey and Caesar now controlled the Roman world. It was large, but not large enough for both these ambitious men. As to which was likely to become sole master, it were difficult for one watching events at that time to foresee. Caesar held Italy, Illyric.u.m, and Gaul, with the resources of his own genius and the idolatrous attachment of his soldiers; Pompey controlled Spain, Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, and the provinces of Asia, with the prestige of his great name and the indefinite resources of the East.
Caesar's first care was to pacify Italy. His moderation and prudence won all cla.s.ses to his side. Many had looked to see the terrible scenes of the days of Marius and Sulla re-enacted. Caesar, however, soon gave a.s.surance that life and property should be held sacred. He needed money; but, to avoid laying a tax upon the people, he asked for the treasure kept beneath the Capitol. Legend declared that this gold was the actual ransom-money which Brennus had demanded of the Romans, and which Camillus had saved by his timely appearance (see p. 241). It was esteemed sacred, and was never to be used save in case of another Gallic invasion. When Caesar attempted to get possession of the treasure, the tribune Metellus prevented him; but Caesar impatiently brushed him aside, saying, ”The fear of a Gallic invasion is over: I have subdued the Gauls.”
With order restored in Italy, Caesar's next movement was to gain control of the wheat-fields of Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A single legion brought over Sardinia without resistance to the side of Caesar. Cato, the lieutenant of Pompey, fled from before Curio out of Sicily. In Africa, however, the lieutenant of Caesar sustained a severe defeat, and the Pompeians held their ground there until the close of the war. Caesar, meanwhile, had subjugated Spain. In forty days the entire peninsula was brought under his authority. Ma.s.silia had ventured to close her gates against the conqueror; but a brief siege forced the city to capitulate.
Caesar was now free to turn his forces against Pompey in the East.
THE BATTLE OF PHARSALUS (48 B.C.).--From Brundisium Caesar embarked his legions for Epirus. The armies of the rivals met upon the plains of Pharsalia, in Thessaly. The adherents of Pompey were so confident of an easy victory that they were already disputing about the offices at Rome, and were renting the most eligible houses fronting the public squares of the capital. The battle was at length joined. It proved Pompey's Waterloo.
His army was cut to pieces. He himself fled from the field, and escaped to Egypt. Just as he was landing there, he was a.s.sa.s.sinated.
The head of the great general was severed from his body; and when Caesar, who was pressing after Pompey in hot pursuit, landed in Egypt, the b.l.o.o.d.y trophy was brought to him. He turned from the sight with generous tears.
It was no longer the head of his rival, but of his old a.s.sociate and son- in-law. He ordered the a.s.sa.s.sins to be executed, and directed that fitting obsequies should be performed over the body.
CLOSE OF THE CIVIL WAR.--Caesar was detained at Alexandria nine months in settling a dispute respecting the throne of Egypt. After a severe contest he overthrew the reigning Ptolemy, and secured the kingdom to the celebrated Cleopatra and a younger brother. Intelligence was now brought from Asia Minor that Pharnaces, son of Mithridates the Great, was inciting a revolt among the peoples of that region. Caesar met the Pontic king at Zela, defeated him, and in five days put an end to the war. His laconic message to the Senate, announcing his victory, is famous. It ran thus: _Veni, vidi, vici_,--”I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Caesar now hurried back to Italy, and thence proceeded to Africa, which the friends of the old republic had made their last chief rallying-place. At the great battle of Thapsus (46 B.C.) they were crushed. Fifty thousand lay dead upon the field. Cato, who had been the very life and soul of the army, refusing to outlive the republic, took his own life.
CaeSAR'S TRIUMPH.--Caesar was now virtually lord of the Roman world.
Although he refrained from a.s.suming the t.i.tle of king, no Eastern monarch was ever possessed of more absolute power, or surrounded by more abject flatterers and sycophants. He was invested with all the offices and dignities of the state. The Senate made him perpetual dictator, and conferred upon him the powers of censor, consul, and tribune, with the t.i.tles of Pontifex Maximus and Imperator (whence Emperor). ”He was to sit in a golden chair in the Senate-house, his image was to be borne in the procession of the G.o.ds, and the seventh month of the year was changed in his honor from Quintilis to Julius [whence our July].”
His triumph celebrating his many victories far eclipsed in magnificence anything that Rome had before witnessed. In the procession were led captive princes from all parts of the world. Beneath his standards marched soldiers gathered out of almost every country beneath the heavens.
Seventy-five million dollars of treasure were displayed. Splendid games and tables attested the liberality of the conqueror. Sixty thousand couches were set for the mult.i.tudes. The shows of the theatre and the combats of the arena followed one another in an endless round. ”Above the combats of the amphitheatre floated for the first time the awning of silk, the immense velarium of a thousand colors, woven from the rarest and richest products of the East, to protect the people from the sun”
(Gibbon).
CaeSAR AS A STATESMAN.--Caesar was great as a general, yet greater, if possible, as a statesman. The measures which he inst.i.tuted evince profound political sagacity and surprising breadth of view. He sought to reverse the jealous and narrow policy of Rome in the past, and to this end rebuilt both Carthage and Corinth, and founded numerous colonies in all the different provinces, in which he settled about one hundred thousand of the poorer citizens of the capital. Upon some of the provincials he conferred full Roman citizens.h.i.+p, and upon others Latin rights (see p. 246, note), and thus strove to blend the varied peoples and races within the boundaries of the empire in a real nationality, with community of interests and sympathies. He reformed the calendar so as to bring the festivals once more in their proper seasons, and provided against further confusion by making the year consist of 365 days, with an added day for every fourth or leap year.
Besides these achievements, Caesar projected many vast undertakings, which the abrupt termination of his life prevented his carrying into execution.
Among these was his projected conquest of the Parthians and the Germans.
He proposed, in revenge for the defeat and death of his friend Cra.s.sus, to break to pieces the Parthian empire; then, sweeping with an army around above the Euxine, to destroy the dreaded hordes of Scythia; and then, falling upon the German tribes in the rear, to crush their power forever, and thus relieve the Roman empire of their constant threat. He was about to set out on the expedition against the Parthians, when he was struck down by a.s.sa.s.sins.
THE DEATH OF CaeSAR.--Caesar had his bitter personal enemies, who never ceased to plot his downfall. There were, too, sincere lovers of the old republic, who longed to see restored the liberty which the conqueror had overthrown. The impression began to prevail that Caesar was aiming to make himself king. A crown was several times offered him in public by Mark Antony; but, seeing the manifest displeasure of the people, he each time pushed it aside. Yet there is no doubt that secretly he desired it. It was reported that he proposed to rebuild the walls of Troy, whence the Roman race had sprung, and make that ancient capital the seat of the new Roman empire. Others professed to believe that the arts and charms of the Egyptian Cleopatra, who had borne him a son at Rome, would entice him to make Alexandria the centre of the proposed kingdom. So many, out of love for Rome and the old republic, were led to enter into a conspiracy against the life of Caesar with those who sought to rid themselves of the dictator for other and personal reasons.
The Ides (the 15th day) of March, 44 B.C., upon which day the Senate convened, witnessed the a.s.sa.s.sination. Seventy or eighty conspirators, headed by Ca.s.sius and Brutus, both of whom had received special favors from the hands of Caesar, were concerned in the plot. The soothsayers must have had some knowledge of the plans of the conspirators, for they had warned Caesar to ”beware of the Ides of March.” On his way to the Senate- meeting that day, a paper warning him of his danger was thrust into his hand; but, not suspecting its urgent nature, he did not open it. As he entered the a.s.sembly chamber he observed the astrologer Spurinna, and remarked carelessly to him, referring to his prediction, ”The Ides of March have come.” ”Yes,” replied Spurinna, ”but not gone.”
No sooner had Caesar taken his seat than the conspirators crowded about him as if to present a pet.i.tion. Upon a signal from one of their number their daggers were drawn. For a moment Caesar defended himself; but seeing Brutus, upon whom he had lavished gifts and favors, among the conspirators, he exclaimed reproachfully, _Et tu, Brute!_--”Thou, too, Brutus!” drew his mantle over his face, and received unresistingly their further thrusts. Pierced with twenty-three wounds, he sank dead at the foot of Pompey's statue.
FUNERAL ORATION by MARK ANTONY.--The conspirators, or ”liberators,” as they called themselves, had thought that the Senate would confirm, and the people applaud, their act. But both people and senators, struck with consternation, were silent. Men's faces grew pale as they recalled the proscriptions of Sulla, and saw in the a.s.sa.s.sination of Caesar the first act in a similar reign of terror. As the conspirators issued from the a.s.sembly hall, and entered the Forum, holding aloft their b.l.o.o.d.y daggers, instead of the expected acclamations they were met by an ominous silence.
The liberators hastened for safety to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, going thither ostensibly for the purpose of giving thanks for the death of the tyrant.
Upon the day set for the funeral ceremonies, Mark Antony, the trusted friend and secretary of Caesar, mounted the rostrum in the Forum to deliver the usual funeral oration. He recounted the great deeds of Caesar, the glory he had conferred upon the Roman name, dwelt upon his liberality and his munificent bequests to the people--even to some who were now his murderers; and, when he had wrought the feelings of the mult.i.tude to the highest tension, he raised the robe of Caesar, and showed the rents made by the daggers of the a.s.sa.s.sins. Caesar had always been beloved by the people and idolized by his soldiers. They were now driven almost to frenzy with grief and indignation. Seizing weapons and torches, they rushed through the streets, vowing vengeance upon the conspirators. The liberators, however, escaped from the fury of the mob, and fled from Rome, Brutus and Ca.s.sius seeking refuge in Greece.
[Ill.u.s.tration: MARK ANTONY.]
THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.--Antony had gained possession of the will and papers of Caesar, and now, under color of carrying out the testament of the dictator, according to a decree of the Senate, entered upon a course of high-handed usurpation. He was aided in his designs by Lepidus, one of Caesar's old lieutenants. Very soon he was exercising all the powers of a real dictator. ”The tyrant is dead,” said Cicero, ”but the tyranny still lives.” This was a bitter commentary upon the words of Brutus, who, as he drew his dagger from the body of Caesar, turned to Cicero, and exclaimed, ”Rejoice, O Father of your Country, for Rome is free.” Rome could not be free, the republic could not be reestablished because the old love for virtue and liberty had died out from among the people--had been overwhelmed by the rising tide of vice, corruption, sensuality, and irreligion that had set in upon the capital.