Part 4 (1/2)
As has been indicated, a mythological system must have been strongly influenced by city politics. To hold a community in sway, it was necessary to recognize officially the various G.o.ds wors.h.i.+pped by different sections, so as to secure the constant allegiance of all cla.s.ses to their rulers. Alien deities were therefore a.s.sociated with local and tribal deities, those of the nomads with those of the agriculturists, those of the unlettered folks with those of the learned people. Reference has been made to the introduction of strange deities by conquerors. But these were not always imposed upon a community by violent means. Indications are not awanting that the wors.h.i.+ppers of alien G.o.ds were sometimes welcomed and encouraged to settle in certain states. When they came as military allies to a.s.sist a city folk against a fierce enemy, they were naturally much admired and praised, honoured by the women and the bards, and rewarded by the rulers.
In the epic of Gilgamesh, the Babylonian Hercules, we meet with Ea-bani, a Goliath of the wilds, who is entreated to come to the aid of the besieged city of Erech when it seemed that its deities were unable to help the people against their enemies.
The G.o.ds of walled-round Erech To flies had turned and buzzed in the streets; The winged bulls of walled-round Erech Were turned to mice and departed through the holes.
Ea-bani was attracted to Erech by the gift of a fair woman for wife.
The poet who lauded him no doubt mirrored public opinion. We can see the slim, shaven Sumerians gazing with wonder and admiration on their rough heroic ally.
All his body was covered with hair, His locks were like a woman's, Thick as corn grew his abundant hair.
He was a stranger to the people and in that land.
Clad in a garment like Gira, the G.o.d, He had eaten gra.s.s with the gazelles, He had drunk water with savage beasts.
His delight was to be among water dwellers.
Like the giant Alban, the eponymous ancestor of a people who invaded prehistoric Britain, Ea-bani appears to have represented in Babylonian folk legends a certain type of foreign settlers in the land. No doubt the city dwellers, who were impressed by the prowess of the hairy and powerful warriors, were also ready to acknowledge the greatness of their war G.o.ds, and to admit them into the pantheon. The fusion of beliefs which followed must have stimulated thought and been productive of speculative ideas. ”Nowhere”, remarks Professor Jastrow, ”does a high form of culture arise without the commingling of diverse ethnic elements.”
We must also take into account the influence exercised by leaders of thought like En-we-dur-an-ki, the famous high priest of Sippar, whose piety did much to increase the reputation of the cult of Shamesh, the sun G.o.d. The teachings and example of Buddha, for instance, revolutionized Brahmanic religion in India.
A mythology was an attempt to solve the riddle of the Universe, and to adjust the relations of mankind with the various forces represented by the deities. The priests systematized existing folk beliefs and established an official religion. To secure the prosperity of the State, it was considered necessary to render homage unto whom homage was due at various seasons and under various circ.u.mstances.
The religious att.i.tude of a particular community, therefore, must have been largely dependent on its needs and experiences. The food supply was a first consideration. At Eridu, as we have seen, it was a.s.sured by devotion to Ea and obedience to his commands as an instructor.
Elsewhere it might happen, however, that Ea's gifts were restricted or withheld by an obstructing force--the raging storm G.o.d, or the parching, pestilence-bringing deity of the sun. It was necessary, therefore, for the people to win the favour of the G.o.d or G.o.ddess who seemed most powerful, and was accordingly considered to be the greatest in a particular district. A rain G.o.d presided over the destinies of one community, and a G.o.d of disease and death over another; a third exalted the war G.o.d, no doubt because raids were frequent and the city owed its strength and prosperity to its battles and conquests. The reputation won by a particular G.o.d throughout Babylonia would depend greatly on the achievements of his wors.h.i.+ppers and the progress of the city civilization over which he presided.
Bel-Enlil's fame as a war deity was probably due to the political supremacy of his city of Nippur; and there was probably good reason for attributing to the sun G.o.d a p.r.o.nounced administrative and legal character; he may have controlled the destinies of exceedingly well organized communities in which law and order and authority were held in high esteem.
In accounting for the rise of distinctive and rival city deities, we should also consider the influence of divergent conceptions regarding the origin of life in mingled communities. Each foreign element in a community had its own intellectual life and immemorial tribal traditions, which reflected ancient habits of life and perpetuated the doctrines of eponymous ancestors. Among the agricultural cla.s.ses, the folk religion which entered so intimately into their customs and labours must have remained essentially Babylonish in character. In cities, however, where official religions were formulated, foreign ideas were more apt to be imposed, especially when embraced by influential teachers. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that in Babylonia, as in Egypt, there were differences of opinion regarding the origin of life and the particular natural element which represented the vital principle.
One section of the people, who were represented by the wors.h.i.+ppers of Ea, appear to have believed that the essence of life was contained in water. The G.o.d of Eridu was the source of the ”water of life”. He fertilized parched and sunburnt wastes through rivers and irrigating ca.n.a.ls, and conferred upon man the sustaining ”food of life”. When life came to an end--
Food of death will be offered thee...
Water of death will be offered thee...
Offerings of water and food were made to the dead so that the ghosts might be nourished and prevented from troubling the living. Even the G.o.ds required water and food; they were immortal because they had drunk ambrosia and eaten from the plant of life. When the G.o.ddess Ishtar was in the Underworld, the land of the dead, the servant of Ea exclaimed--
”Hail! lady, may the well give me of its waters, so that I may drink.”
The G.o.ddess of the dead commanded her servant to ”sprinkle the lady Ishtar with the water of life and bid her depart”. The sacred water might also be found at a confluence of rivers. Ea bade his son, Merodach, to ”draw water from the mouth of two streams”, and ”on this water to put his pure spell”.
The wors.h.i.+p of rivers and wells which prevailed in many countries was connected with the belief that the principle of life was in moisture.
In India, water was vitalized by the intoxicating juice of the Soma plant, which inspired priests to utter prophecies and filled their hearts with religious fervour. Drinking customs had originally a religious significance. It was believed in India that the sap of plants was influenced by the moon, the source of vitalizing moisture and the hiding-place of the mead of the G.o.ds. The Teutonic G.o.ds also drank this mead, and poets were inspired by it. Similar beliefs obtained among various peoples. Moon and water wors.h.i.+p were therefore closely a.s.sociated; the blood of animals and the sap of plants were vitalized by the water of life and under control of the moon.
The body moisture of G.o.ds and demons had vitalizing properties. When the Indian creator, Praj.a.pati, wept at the beginning, ”that (the tears) which fell into the water became the air. That which he wiped away, upwards, became the sky.”[50] The ancient Egyptians believed that all men were born from the eyes of Horus except negroes, who came from other parts of his body.[51] The creative tears of Ra, the sun G.o.d, fell as s.h.i.+ning rays upon the earth. When this G.o.d grew old saliva dripped from his mouth, and Isis mixed the vitalizing moisture with dust, and thus made the serpent which bit and paralysed the great solar deity.[52]
Other Egyptian deities, including Osiris and Isis, wept creative tears. Those which fell from the eyes of the evil G.o.ds produced poisonous plants and various baneful animals. Orion, the Greek giant, sprang from the body moisture of deities. The weeping ceremonies in connection with agricultural rites were no doubt believed to be of magical potency; they encouraged the G.o.d to weep creative tears.
Ea, the G.o.d of the deep, was also ”lord of life” (Enti), ”king of the river” (Lugal-ida), and G.o.d of creation (Nudimmud). His aid was invoked by means of magical formulae. As the ”great magician of the G.o.ds” he uttered charms himself, and was the patron of all magicians.
One spell runs as follows:
I am the sorcerer priest of Ea...
To revive the ... sick man The great lord Ea hath sent me; He hath added his pure spell to mine, He hath added his pure voice to mine, He hath added his pure spittle to mine.