Part 13 (2/2)
In Fig. 229 G designates a direct-current generator. L L are the conductors of the circuit extending therefrom. A is a tube of gla.s.s, the ends of which are sealed, as by means of insulating plugs or caps B B. C C' are two conductors extending through the tube A, their ends pa.s.sing out through the plugs B to terminals thereon. These conductors may be corrugated or formed in other proper ways to offer the desired electrical resistance. R is a resistance connected in series with the two conductors C C', which by their free terminals are connected up in circuit with one of the conductors L.
The method of using this device and computing by means thereof the energy of the current will be readily understood. First, the resistances of the two conductors C C', respectively, are accurately measured and noted. Then a known current is pa.s.sed through the instrument for a given time, and by a second measurement the increase and diminution of the resistances of the two conductors are respectively taken. From these data the constant is obtained--that is to say, for example, the increase of resistance of one conductor or the diminution of the resistance of the other per lamp hour. These two measurements evidently serve as a check, since the gain of one conductor should equal the loss of the other. A further check is afforded by measuring both wires in series with the resistance, in which case the resistance of the whole should remain constant.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 230.]
In Fig. 230 the conductors C C' are connected in parallel, the current device at X pa.s.sing in one branch first through a resistance R' and then through conductor C, while on the other branch it pa.s.ses first through conductor C', and then through resistance R”. The resistances R' R” are equal, as also are the resistances of the conductors C C'. It is, moreover, preferable that the respective resistances of the conductors C C' should be a known and convenient fraction of the coils or resistances R' R”. It will be observed that in the arrangement shown in Fig. 230 there is a constant potential difference between the two conductors C C' throughout their entire length.
It will be seen that in both cases ill.u.s.trated, the proportionality of the increase or decrease of resistance to the current strength will always be preserved, for what one conductor gains the other loses, and the resistances of the conductors C C' being small as compared with the resistances in series with them. It will be understood that after each measurement or registration of a given variation of resistance in one or both conductors, the direction of the current should be changed or the instrument reversed, so that the deposit will be taken from the conductor which has gained and added to that which has lost. This principle is capable of many modifications. For instance, since there is a section of the circuit--to wit, the conductor C or C'--that varies in resistance in proportion to the current strength, such variation may be utilized, as is done in many a.n.a.logous cases, to effect the operation of various automatic devices, such as registers. It is better, however, for the sake of simplicity to compute the energy by measurements of resistance.
The chief advantages of this arrangement are, first, that it is possible to read off directly the amount of the energy expended by means of a properly constructed ohm-meter and without resorting to weighing the deposit; secondly it is not necessary to employ shunts, for the whole of the current to be measured may be pa.s.sed through the instrument; third, the accuracy of the instrument and correctness of the indications are but slightly affected by changes in temperature. It is also said that such meters have the merit of superior economy and compactness, as well as of cheapness in construction. Electrolytic meters seem to need every auxiliary advantage to make them permanently popular and successful, no matter how much ingenuity may be shown in their design.
CHAPTER x.x.xVI.
THERMO-MAGNETIC MOTORS AND PYRO-MAGNETIC GENERATORS.
No electrical inventor of the present day dealing with the problems of light and power considers that he has done himself or his opportunities justice until he has attacked the subject of thermo-magnetism. As far back as the beginning of the seventeenth century it was shown by Dr. William Gilbert, the father of modern electricity, that a loadstone or iron bar when heated to redness loses its magnetism; and since that time the influence of heat on the magnetic metals has been investigated frequently, though not with any material or practical result.
For a man of Mr. Tesla's inventive ability, the problems in this field have naturally had no small fascination, and though he has but glanced at them, it is to be hoped he may find time to pursue the study deeper and further. For such as he, the investigation must undoubtedly bear fruit. Meanwhile he has worked out one or two operative devices worthy of note.[12] He obtains mechanical power by a reciprocating action resulting from the joint operations of heat, magnetism, and a spring or weight or other force--that is to say he subjects a body magnetized by induction or otherwise to the action of heat until the magnetism is sufficiently neutralized to allow a weight or spring to give motion to the body and lessen the action of the heat, so that the magnetism may be sufficiently restored to move the body in the opposite direction, and again subject the same to the demagnetizing power of the heat.
[12] It will, of course, be inferred from the nature of these devices that the vibration obtained in this manner is very slow owing to the inability of the iron to follow rapid changes in temperature. In an interview with Mr. Tesla on this subject, the compiler learned of an experiment which will interest students. A simple horseshoe magnet is taken and a piece of sheet iron bent in the form of an L is brought in contact with one of the poles and placed in such a position that it is kept in the attraction of the opposite pole delicately suspended. A spirit lamp is placed under the sheet iron piece and when the iron is heated to a certain temperature it is easily set in vibration oscillating as rapidly as 400 to 500 times a minute. The experiment is very easily performed and is interesting princ.i.p.ally on account of the very rapid rate of vibration.
Use is made of either an electro-magnet or a permanent magnet, and the heat is directed against a body that is magnetized by induction, rather than directly against a permanent magnet, thereby avoiding the loss of magnetism that might result in the permanent magnet by the action of heat. Mr. Tesla also provides for lessening the volume of the heat or for intercepting the same during that portion of the reciprocation in which the cooling action takes place.
In the diagrams are shown some of the numerous arrangements that may be made use of in carrying out this idea. In all of these figures the magnet-poles are marked N S, the armature A, the Bunsen burner or other source of heat H, the axis of motion M, and the spring or the equivalent thereof--namely, a weight--is marked W.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 232.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 231.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 233.]
In Fig. 231 the permanent magnet N is connected with a frame, F, supporting the axis M, from which the arm P hangs, and at the lower end of which the armature A is supported. The stops 2 and 3 limit the extent of motion, and the spring W tends to draw the armature A away from the magnet N. It will now be understood that the magnetism of N is sufficient to overcome the spring W and draw the armature A toward the magnet N. The heat acting upon the armature A neutralizes its induced magnetism sufficiently for the spring W to draw the armature A away from the magnet N and also from the heat at H. The armature now cools, and the attraction of the magnet N overcomes the spring W and draws the armature A back again above the burner H, so that the same is again heated and the operations are repeated. The reciprocating movements thus obtained are employed as a source of mechanical power in any desired manner. Usually a connecting-rod to a crank upon a fly-wheel shaft would be made use of, as indicated in Fig. 240.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 234.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 236.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 235.]
Fig. 232 represents the same parts as before described; but an electro-magnet is ill.u.s.trated in place of a permanent magnet. The operations, however, are the same.
In Fig. 233 are shown the same parts as in Figs. 231 and 232, but they are differently arranged. The armature A, instead of swinging, is stationary and held by arm P', and the core N S of the electro-magnet is made to swing within the helix Q, the core being suspended by the arm P from the pivot M. A s.h.i.+eld, R, is connected with the magnet-core and swings with it, so that after the heat has demagnetized the armature A to such an extent that the spring W draws the core N S away from the armature A, the s.h.i.+eld R comes between the flame H and armature A, thereby intercepting the action of the heat and allowing the armature to cool, so that the magnetism, again preponderating, causes the movement of the core N S toward the armature A and the removal of the s.h.i.+eld R from above the flame, so that the heat again acts to lessen or neutralize the magnetism. A rotary or other movement may be obtained from this reciprocation.
Fig. 234 corresponds in every respect with Fig. 233, except that a permanent horseshoe-magnet, N S is represented as taking the place of the electro-magnet in Fig. 233.
In Fig. 235 is shown a helix, Q, with an armature adapted to swing toward or from the helix. In this case there may be a soft-iron core in the helix, or the armature may a.s.sume the form of a solenoid core, there being no permanent core within the helix.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 237.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 238.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 239.]
Fig. 236 is an end view, and Fig. 237 a plan view, ill.u.s.trating the method as applied to a swinging armature, A, and a stationary permanent magnet, N S. In this instance Mr. Tesla applies the heat to an auxiliary armature or keeper, T, which is adjacent to and preferably in direct contact with the magnet. This armature T, in the form of a plate of sheet-iron, extends across from one pole to the other and is of sufficient section to practically form a keeper for the magnet, so that when the armature T is cool nearly all the lines of force pa.s.s over the same and very little free magnetism is exhibited. Then the armature A, which swings freely on the pivots M in front of the poles N S, is very little attracted and the spring W pulls the same way from the poles into the position indicated in the diagram. The heat is directed upon the iron plate T at some distance from the magnet, so as to allow the magnet to keep comparatively cool. This heat is applied beneath the plate by means of the burners H, and there is a connection from the armature A or its pivot to the gas-c.o.c.k 6, or other device for regulating the heat. The heat acting upon the middle portion of the plate T, the magnetic conductivity of the heated portion is diminished or destroyed, and a great number of the lines of force are deflected over the armature A, which is now powerfully attracted and drawn into line, or nearly so, with the poles N S. In so doing the c.o.c.k 6 is nearly closed and the plate T cools, the lines of force are again deflected over the same, the attraction exerted upon the armature A is diminished, and the spring W pulls the same away from the magnet into the position shown by full lines, and the operations are repeated. The arrangement shown in Fig. 236 has the advantages that the magnet and armature are kept cool and the strength of the permanent magnet is better preserved, as the magnetic circuit is constantly closed.
In the plan view, Fig. 238, is shown a permanent magnet and keeper plate, T, similar to those in Figs. 236 and 237, with the burners H for the gas beneath the same; but the armature is pivoted at one end to one pole of the magnet and the other end swings toward and from the other pole of the magnet. The spring W acts against a lever arm that projects from the armature, and the supply of heat has to be partly cut off by a connection to the swinging armature, so as to lessen the heat acting upon the keeper plate when the armature A has been attracted.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 240.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 241.]
Fig. 239 is similar to Fig. 238, except that the keeper T is not made use of and the armature itself swings into and out of the range of the intense action of the heat from the burner H. Fig. 240 is a diagram similar to Fig. 231, except that in place of using a spring and stops, the armature is shown as connected by a link, to the crank of a fly-wheel, so that the fly-wheel will be revolved as rapidly as the armature can be heated and cooled to the necessary extent. A spring may be used in addition, as in Fig. 231. In Fig. 241 the armatures A A are connected by a link, so that one will be heating while the other is cooling, and the attraction exerted to move the cooled armature is availed of to draw away the heated armature instead of using a spring.
Mr. Tesla has also devoted his attention to the development of a pyromagnetic generator of electricity[13] based upon the following laws: First, that electricity or electrical energy is developed in any conducting body by subjecting such body to a varying magnetic influence; and second, that the magnetic properties of iron or other magnetic substance may be partially or entirely destroyed or caused to disappear by raising it to a certain temperature, but restored and caused to reappear by again lowering its temperature to a certain degree. These laws may be applied in the production of electrical currents in many ways, the principle of which is in all cases the same, viz., to subject a conductor to a varying magnetic influence, producing such variations by the application of heat, or, more strictly speaking, by the application or action of a varying temperature upon the source of the magnetism. This principle of operation may be ill.u.s.trated by a simple experiment: Place end to end, and preferably in actual contact, a permanently magnetized steel bar and a strip or bar of soft iron. Around the end of the iron bar or plate wind a coil of insulated wire. Then apply to the iron between the coil and the steel bar a flame or other source of heat which will be capable of raising that portion of the iron to an orange red, or a temperature of about 600 centigrade. When this condition is reached, the iron somewhat suddenly loses its magnetic properties, if it be very thin, and the same effect is produced as though the iron had been moved away from the magnet or the heated section had been removed. This change of position, however, is accompanied by a s.h.i.+fting of the magnetic lines, or, in other words, by a variation in the magnetic influence to which the coil is exposed, and a current in the coil is the result. Then remove the flame or in any other way reduce the temperature of the iron. The lowering of its temperature is accompanied by a return of its magnetic properties, and another change of magnetic conditions occurs, accompanied by a current in an opposite direction in the coil. The same operation may be repeated indefinitely, the effect upon the coil being similar to that which would follow from moving the magnetized bar to and from the end of the iron bar or plate.
[13] The chief point to be noted is that Mr. Tesla attacked this problem in a way which was, from the standpoint of theory, and that of an engineer, far better than that from which some earlier trials in this direction started. The enlargement of these ideas will be found in Mr. Tesla's work on the pyromagnetic generator, treated in this chapter. The chief effort of the inventor was to economize the heat, which was accomplished by inclosing the iron in a source of heat well insulated, and by cooling the iron by means of steam, utilizing the steam over again. The construction also permits of more rapid magnetic changes per unit of time, meaning larger output.
The device ill.u.s.trated below is a means of obtaining this result, the features of novelty in the invention being, first, the employment of an artificial cooling device, and, second, inclosing the source of heat and that portion of the magnetic circuit exposed to the heat and artificially cooling the heated part.
These improvements are applicable generally to the generators constructed on the plan above described--that is to say, we may use an artificial cooling device in conjunction with a variable or varied or uniform source of heat.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 242.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 243.]
Fig. 242 is a central vertical longitudinal section of the complete apparatus and Fig. 243 is a cross-section of the magnetic armature-core of the generator.
Let A represent a magnetized core or permanent magnet the poles of which are bridged by an armature-core composed of a casing or sh.e.l.l B inclosing a number of hollow iron tubes C. Around this core are wound the conductors E E', to form the coils in which the currents are developed. In the circuits of these coils are current-consuming devices, as F F'.
D is a furnace or closed fire-box, through which the central portion of the core B extends. Above the fire is a boiler K, containing water. The flue L from the fire-box may extend up through the boiler.
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