Part II (Pars Prima Secundae) Part 88 (1/2)
Reply Obj. 1: Wisdom is a kind of science, in so far as it has that which is common to all the sciences; viz. to demonstrate conclusions from principles. But since it has something proper to itself above the other sciences, inasmuch as it judges of them all, not only as to their conclusions, but also as to their first principles, therefore it is a more perfect virtue than science.
Reply Obj. 2: When the formal aspect of the object is referred to a power or habit by one same act, there is no distinction of habit or power in respect of the formal aspect and of the material object: thus it belongs to the same power of sight to see both color, and light, which is the formal aspect under which color is seen, and is seen at the same time as the color. On the other hand, the principles of a demonstration can be considered apart, without the conclusion being considered at all. Again they can be considered together with the conclusions, since the conclusions can be deduced from them.
Accordingly, to consider the principles in this second way, belongs to science, which considers the conclusions also: while to consider the principles in themselves belongs to understanding.
Consequently, if we consider the point aright, these three virtues are distinct, not as being on a par with one another, but in a certain order. The same is to be observed in potential wholes, wherein one part is more perfect than another; for instance, the rational soul is more perfect than the sensitive soul; and the sensitive, than the vegetal. For it is thus that science depends on understanding as on a virtue of higher degree: and both of these depend on wisdom, as obtaining the highest place, and containing beneath itself both understanding and science, by judging both of the conclusions of science, and of the principles on which they are based.
Reply Obj. 3: As stated above (Q. 55, AA. 3, 4), a virtuous habit has a fixed relation to good, and is nowise referable to evil. Now the good of the intellect is truth, and falsehood is its evil. Wherefore those habits alone are called intellectual virtues, whereby we tell the truth and never tell a falsehood. But opinion and suspicion can be about both truth and falsehood: and so, as stated in _Ethic._ vi, 3, they are not intellectual virtues.
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THIRD ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 57, Art. 3]
Whether the Intellectual Habit, Art, Is a Virtue?
Objection 1: It would seem that art is not an intellectual virtue.
For Augustine says (De Lib. Arb. ii, 18, 19) that ”no one makes bad use of virtue.” But one may make bad use of art: for a craftsman can work badly according to the knowledge of his art. Therefore art is not a virtue.
Obj. 2: Further, there is no virtue of a virtue. But ”there is a virtue of art,” according to the Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 5).
Therefore art is not a virtue.
Obj. 3: Further, the liberal arts excel the mechanical arts. But just as the mechanical arts are practical, so the liberal arts are speculative. Therefore, if art were an intellectual virtue, it would have to be reckoned among the speculative virtues.
_On the contrary,_ The Philosopher (Ethic. vi, 3, 4) says that art is a virtue; and yet he does not reckon it among the speculative virtues, which, according to him, reside in the scientific part of the soul.
_I answer that,_ Art is nothing else but ”the right reason about certain works to be made.” And yet the good of these things depends, not on man's appet.i.tive faculty being affected in this or that way, but on the goodness of the work done. For a craftsman, as such, is commendable, not for the will with which he does a work, but for the quality of the work. Art, therefore, properly speaking, is an operative habit. And yet it has something in common with the speculative habits: since the quality of the object considered by the latter is a matter of concern to them also, but not how the human appet.i.te may be affected towards that object. For as long as the geometrician demonstrates the truth, it matters not how his appet.i.tive faculty may be affected, whether he be joyful or angry: even as neither does this matter in a craftsman, as we have observed.
And so art has the nature of a virtue in the same way as the speculative habits, in so far, to wit, as neither art nor speculative habit makes a good work as regards the use of the habit, which is the property of a virtue that perfects the appet.i.te, but only as regards the aptness to work well.
Reply Obj. 1: When anyone endowed with an art produces bad workmans.h.i.+p, this is not the work of that art, in fact it is contrary to the art: even as when a man lies, while knowing the truth, his words are not in accord with his knowledge, but contrary thereto.
Wherefore, just as science has always a relation to good, as stated above (A. 2, ad 3), so it is with art: and it is for this reason that it is called a virtue. And yet it falls short of being a perfect virtue, because it does not make its possessor to use it well; for which purpose something further is requisite: although there cannot be a good use without the art.
Reply Obj. 2: In order that man may make good use of the art he has, he needs a good will, which is perfected by moral virtue; and for this reason the Philosopher says that there is a virtue of art; namely, a moral virtue, in so far as the good use of art requires a moral virtue. For it is evident that a craftsman is inclined by justice, which rectifies his will, to do his work faithfully.
Reply Obj. 3: Even in speculative matters there is something by way of work: e.g. the making of a syllogism or of a fitting speech, or the work of counting or measuring. Hence whatever habits are ordained to such like works of the speculative reason, are, by a kind of comparison, called arts indeed, but ”liberal” arts, in order to distinguish them from those arts that are ordained to works done by the body, which arts are, in a fas.h.i.+on, servile, inasmuch as the body is in servile subjection to the soul, and man, as regards his soul, is free (_liber_). On the other hand, those sciences which are not ordained to any such like work, are called sciences simply, and not arts. Nor, if the liberal arts be more excellent, does it follow that the notion of art is more applicable to them.
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FOURTH ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 57, Art. 4]
Whether Prudence Is a Distinct Virtue from Art?
Objection 1: It would seem that prudence is not a distinct virtue from art. For art is the right reason about certain works. But diversity of works does not make a habit cease to be an art; since there are various arts about works widely different. Since therefore prudence is also right reason about works, it seems that it too should be reckoned a virtue.
Obj. 2: Further, prudence has more in common with art than the speculative habits have; for they are both ”about contingent matters that may be otherwise than they are” (Ethic. vi, 4, 5). Now some speculative habits are called arts. Much more, therefore, should prudence be called an art.
Obj. 3: Further, it belongs to prudence, ”to be of good counsel”
(Ethic. vi, 5). But counselling takes place in certain arts also, as stated in _Ethic._ iii, 3, e.g. in the arts of warfare, of seamans.h.i.+p, and of medicine. Therefore prudence is not distinct from art.
_On the contrary,_ The Philosopher distinguishes prudence from art (Ethic. vi, 5).
_I answer that,_ Where the nature of virtue differs, there is a different kind of virtue. Now it has been stated above (A. 1; Q. 56, A. 3) that some habits have the nature of virtue, through merely conferring aptness for a good work: while some habits are virtues, not only through conferring aptness for a good work, but also through conferring the use. But art confers the mere aptness for good work; since it does not regard the appet.i.te; whereas prudence confers not only aptness for a good work, but also the use: for it regards the appet.i.te, since it presupposes the rect.i.tude thereof.
The reason for this difference is that art is the ”right reason of things to be made”; whereas prudence is the ”right reason of things to be done.” Now ”making” and ”doing” differ, as stated in _Metaph._ ix, text. 16, in that ”making” is an action pa.s.sing into outward matter, e.g. ”to build,” ”to saw,” and so forth; whereas ”doing” is an action abiding in the agent, e.g. ”to see,” ”to will,” and the like. Accordingly prudence stands in the same relation to such like human actions, consisting in the use of powers and habits, as art does to outward making: since each is the perfect reason about the things with which it is concerned. But perfection and rect.i.tude of reason in speculative matters, depend on the principles from which reason argues; just as we have said above (A. 2, ad 2) that science depends on and presupposes understanding, which is the habit of principles. Now in human acts the end is what the principles are in speculative matters, as stated in _Ethic._ vii, 8. Consequently, it is requisite for prudence, which is right reason about things to be done, that man be well disposed with regard to the ends: and this depends on the rect.i.tude of his appet.i.te. Wherefore, for prudence there is need of a moral virtue, which rectifies the appet.i.te. On the other hand the good of things made by art is not the good of man's appet.i.te, but the good of those things themselves: wherefore art does not presuppose rect.i.tude of the appet.i.te. The consequence is that more praise is given to a craftsman who is at fault willingly, than to one who is unwillingly; whereas it is more contrary to prudence to sin willingly than unwillingly, since rect.i.tude of the will is essential to prudence, but not to art. Accordingly it is evident that prudence is a virtue distinct from art.
Reply Obj. 1: The various kinds of things made by art are all external to man: hence they do not cause a different kind of virtue.