Part 20 (1/2)
[Sidenote: The Ummayyad Caliphate (661-750 A.D.).]
The second division includes the Caliphs of the family of Umayya, from the accession of Mu'awiya in 661 to the great battle of the Zab in 750, when Marwan II, the last of his line, was defeated by the 'Abbasids, who claimed the Caliphate as next of kin to the Prophet. According to Moslem notions the Umayyads were kings by right, Caliphs only by courtesy. They had, as we shall see, no spiritual t.i.tle, and little enough religion of any sort. This dynasty, which had been raised and was upheld by the Syrian Arabs, transferred the seat of government from Medina to Damascus.
[Sidenote: The 'Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 A.D.).]
The third division is by far the longest and most important. Starting in 750 with the accession of Abu 'l-'Abbas al-Saffah, it presents an unbroken series of thirty-seven Caliphs of the same House, and culminates, after the lapse of half a millennium, in the sack of Baghdad, their magnificent capital, by the Mongol Hulagu (January, 1258). The 'Abbasids were no less despotic than the Umayyads, but in a more enlightened fas.h.i.+on; for, while the latter had been purely Arab in feeling, the 'Abbasids owed their throne to the Persian nationalists, and were imbued with Persian ideas, which introduced a new and fruitful element into Moslem civilisation.
[Sidenote: Early Islamic literature.]
From our special point of view the Orthodox and Umayyad Caliphates, which form the subject of the present chapter, are somewhat barren. The simple life of the pagan Arabs found full expression in their poetry.
The many-sided life of the Moslems under 'Abbasid rule may be studied in a copious literature which exhibits all the characteristics of the age; but of contemporary doc.u.ments ill.u.s.trating the intellectual history of the early Islamic period comparatively little has been preserved, and that little, being for the most part anti-Islamic in tendency, gives only meagre information concerning what excites interest beyond anything else--the religious movement, the rise of theology, and the origin of those great parties and sects which emerge, at various stages of development, in later literature.
[Sidenote: Unity of Church and State.]
Since the Moslem Church and State are essentially one, it is impossible to treat of politics apart from religion, nor can religious phenomena be understood without continual reference to political events. The following brief sketch of the Orthodox Caliphate will show how completely this unity was realised, and what far-reaching consequences it had.
[Sidenote: Abu Bakr elected Caliph (June, 632 A.D.).]
[Sidenote: Musaylima the Liar.]
That Mu?ammad left no son was perhaps of less moment than his neglect or refusal to nominate a successor. The Arabs were unfamiliar with the hereditary descent of kingly power, while the idea had not yet dawned of a Divine right resident in the Prophet's family. It was thoroughly in accord with Arabian practice that the Moslem community should elect its own leader, just as in heathen days the tribe chose its own chief. The likeliest men--all three belonged to Quraysh--were Abu Bakr, whose daughter 'a'isha had been Mu?ammad's favourite wife, 'Umar b.
al-Kha??ab, and 'Ali, Abu ?alib's son and Fa?ima's husband, who was thus connected with the Prophet by blood as well as by marriage.
Abu Bakr was the eldest, he was supported by 'Umar, and on him the choice ultimately fell, though not without an ominous ebullition of party strife. A man of simple tastes and una.s.suming demeanour, he had earned the name _al-?iddiq, _i.e._, the True, by his unquestioning faith in the Prophet; naturally gentle and merciful, he stood firm when the cause of Islam was at stake, and crushed with iron hand the revolt which on the news of Mu?ammad's death spread like wildfire through Arabia. False prophets arose, and the Bedouins rallied round them, eager to throw off the burden of t.i.thes and prayers. In the centre of the peninsula, the Banu ?anifa were led to battle by Musaylima, who imitated the early style of the Koran with ludicrous effect, if we may judge from the sayings ascribed to him, _e.g._, ”The elephant, what is the elephant, and who shall tell you what is the elephant? He has a poor tail, and a long trunk: and is a trifling part of the creations of thy G.o.d.” Moslem tradition calls him the Liar (_al-Kadhdhab_), and represents him as an obscene miracle-monger, which can hardly be the whole truth. It is possible that he got some of his doctrines from Christianity, as Professor Margoliouth has suggested,[344] but we know too little about them to arrive at any conclusion. After a desperate struggle Musaylima was defeated and slain by 'the Sword of Allah,'
Khalid b. Walid. The Moslem arms were everywhere victorious. Arabia bowed in sullen submission.
[Sidenote: Islam a world-religion.]
[Sidenote: Conquest of Persia and Syria (633-643 A.D.).]
[Sidenote: Moslem toleration.]
Although Muir and other biographers of Mu?ammad have argued that Islam was originally designed for the Arabs alone, and made no claim to universal acceptance, their a.s.sertion is contradicted by the unequivocal testimony of the Koran itself. In one of the oldest Revelations (lxviii, 51-52), we read: ”_It wanteth little but that the unbelievers dash thee to the ground with their looks_ (of anger) _when they hear the Warning_ (_i.e._, the Koran); _and they say, 'He is a.s.suredly mad': but it_ (the Koran) _is no other than a_ WARNING UNTO ALL CREATURES” (_dhikrun li 'l-'alamin_).[345] The time had now come when this splendid dream was to be, in large measure, fulfilled. The great wars of conquest were inspired by the Prophet's missionary zeal and justified by his example.
Pious duty coincided with reasons of state. ”It was certainly good policy to turn the recently subdued tribes of the wilderness towards an external aim in which they might at once satisfy their l.u.s.t for booty on a grand scale, maintain their warlike feeling, and strengthen themselves in their attachment to the new faith.”[346] The story of their achievements cannot be set down here. Suffice it to say that within twelve years after the Prophet's death the Persian Empire had been reduced to a tributary province, and Syria, together with Egypt, torn away from Byzantine rule. It must not be supposed that the followers of Zoroaster and Christ in these countries were forcibly converted to Islam. Thousands embraced it of free will, impelled by various motives which we have no s.p.a.ce to enumerate; those who clung to the religion in which they had been brought up secured protection and toleration by payment of a capitation-tax (_jizya_).[347]
[Sidenote: The Caliph 'Umar (634-644 A.D.).]
The tide of foreign conquest, which had scarce begun to flow before the death of Abu Bakr, swept with amazing rapidity over Syria and Persia in the Caliphate of 'Umar b. al-Kha??ab (634-644), and continued to advance, though with diminished fury, under the Prophet's third successor, 'Uthman. We may dwell for a little on the n.o.ble figure of 'Umar, who was regarded by good Moslems in after times as an embodiment of all the virtues which a Caliph ought to possess. Probably his character has been idealised, but in any case the anecdotes related of him give an admirable picture of the man and his age. Here are a few, taken almost at random from the pages of ?abari.
[Sidenote: His simple manners.]
[Sidenote: His sense of personal responsibility.]
[Sidenote: The Caliph as a policeman.]
[Sidenote: His strictness towards his own family.]
[Sidenote: Instructions to his governors.]
One said: ”I saw 'Umar coming to the Festival. He walked with bare feet, using both hands (for he was ambidextrous) to draw round him a red embroidered cloth. He towered above the people, as though he were on horseback.”[348] A client of (the Caliph) 'Uthman b. 'Affan relates that he mounted behind his patron and they rode together to the enclosure for the beasts which were delivered in payment of the poor-tax. It was an exceedingly hot day and the simoom was blowing fiercely. They saw a man clad only in a loin-cloth and a short cloak (_rida_), in which he had wrapped his head, driving the camels into the enclosure. 'Uthman said to his companion, ”Who is this, think you?” When they came up to him, behold, it was 'Umar b.
al-Kha??ab. ”By G.o.d,” said 'Uthman, ”this is _the strong, the trusty_.”[349]--'Umar used to go round the markets and recite the Koran and judge between disputants wherever he found them.--When Ka'bu 'l-A?bar, a well-known Rabbin of Medina, asked how he could obtain access to the Commander of the Faithful,[350] he received this answer: ”There is no door nor curtain to be pa.s.sed; he performs the rites of prayer, then he takes his seat, and any one that wishes may speak to him.”[351] 'Umar said in one of his public orations, ”By Him who sent Mu?ammad with the truth, were a single camel to die of neglect on the bank of the Euphrates, I should fear lest G.o.d should call the family of al-Kha??ab” (meaning himself) ”to account therefor.”[352]--”If I live,” he is reported to have said on another occasion, ”please G.o.d, I will a.s.suredly spend a whole year in travelling among my subjects, for I know they have wants which are cut short ere they reach my ears: the governors do not bring the wants of the people before me, while the people themselves do not attain to me. So I will journey to Syria and remain there two months, then to Mesopotamia and remain there two months, then to Egypt and remain there two months, then to Ba?rayn and remain there two months, then to Kufa and remain there two months, then to Ba?ra and remain there two months; and by G.o.d, it will be a year well spent!”[353]--One night he came to the house of 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man b. 'Awf and knocked at the door, which was opened by 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man's wife. ”Do not enter,” said she, ”until I go back and sit in my place;” so he waited. Then she bade him come in, and on his asking, ”Have you anything in the house?” she fetched him some food. Meanwhile 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man was standing by, engaged in prayer. ”Be quick, man!” cried 'Umar. 'Abdu 'l-Ra?man immediately p.r.o.nounced the final salaam, and turning to the Caliph said: ”O Commander of the Faithful, what has brought you here at this hour?”